• 01.000 Chapter 1: Referring to people and things
  • 01.001 Introduction to the noun group
  • 01.002 position in clause
  • 01.003 common nouns and proper nouns
  • 01.004 determiners with common nouns
  • 01.005 personal and demonstrative pronouns
  • 01.006 indefinite pronouns
  • 01.007 noun group choice
  • 01.008 modifiers and qualifiers
  • 01.009 modifiers
  • 01.010 qualifiers
  • 01.012 coordination
  • 01.013 numbers and quantifiers
  • 01.014 Identifying people and things: nouns
  • 01.015 capital letters
  • 01.016 Things which can be counted: count nouns
  • 01.017 noun-verb agreement
  • 01.018 use of determiners
  • 01.019 list of count nouns
  • 01.020 singular and plural forms
  • 01.021 same form for singular and plural
  • 01.022 singular form with plural meaning
  • 01.023 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 01.024 Things not usually counted: uncount nouns
  • 01.025 noun-verb agreement
  • 01.026 list of uncount nouns
  • 01.027 WARNING
  • 01.028 quantifying
  • 01.029 mass nouns
  • 01.032 list of mass nouns
  • 01.033 nouns that are uncount and count
  • 01.034 uncount nouns ending in '-s'
  • 01.035 When there is only one of something: singular nouns
  • 01.036 noun-verb agreement
  • 01.037 things that are unique
  • 01.038 using the context
  • 01.039 used with delexical verbs
  • 01.040 singular noun structures
  • 01.041 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.042 Referring to more than one thing: plural nouns
  • 01.043 noun-verb agreement
  • 01.044 use with modifiers and qualifiers
  • 01.045 with or without determiners
  • 01.046 other modifiers and qualifiers
  • 01.047 typical meanings: clothes and tools
  • 01.048 Referring to groups: collective nouns
  • 01.049 singular or plural verb
  • 01.050 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.051 WARNING
  • 01.052 list of collective nouns
  • 01.053 Referring to people and things by name: proper nouns
  • 01.055 relationship nouns
  • 01.056 titles
  • 01.057 titles used without names
  • 01.058 titles used as count nouns
  • 01.059 other proper nouns
  • 01.060 Nouns which are rarely used alone
  • 01.061 used with modifiers
  • 01.062 used with qualifiers
  • 01.063 always used with modifiers
  • 01.064 always used with possessives
  • 01.065 metaphorical uses
  • 01.066 list of nouns which are rarely used alone
  • 01.067 Sharing the same quality: adjectives as headwords
  • 01.068 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 01.069 noun-verb agreement
  • 01.070 being more specific
  • 01.071 qualities
  • 01.072 colours
  • 01.073 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.074 Nouns referring to males or females
  • 01.075 '-ess' and '-woman'
  • 01.076 '-man' and '-person'
  • 01.077 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.078 Referring to activities and processes: '-ing' nouns
  • 01.079 uncount nouns
  • 01.081 used with adjectives
  • 01.083 count nouns
  • 01.084 Specifying more exactly: compound nouns
  • 01.085 use of hyphens
  • 01.086 lists of compound nouns
  • 01.090 composition of compound nouns
  • 01.091 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.092 plural forms
  • 01.094 Referring to people and things without naming them: pronouns
  • 01.095 types of pronoun
  • 01.096 Referring to people and things: personal pronouns
  • 01.097 subject pronouns
  • 01.098 'I'
  • 01.099 'you'
  • 01.100 'he' and 'she'
  • 01.101 'it'
  • 01.102 'we'
  • 01.103 'they'
  • 01.104 object pronouns
  • 01.105 position in clause
  • 01.107 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.108 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.109 'one' as a personal pronoun
  • 01.110 Mentioning possession: possessive pronouns
  • 01.112 typical use
  • 01.113 used with 'of'
  • 01.115 Referring back to the subject: reflexive pronouns
  • 01.116 WARNING
  • 01.117 used as object
  • 01.118 WARNING
  • 01.119 used as objects of prepositions
  • 01.120 used for emphasis or contrast
  • 01.123 Referring to a particular person or thing: demonstrative pronouns
  • 01.124 'this' and 'that'
  • 01.126 'these' and 'those'
  • 01.127 Referring to people and things in a general way: indefinite pronouns
  • 01.128 used only with singular verbs
  • 01.129 referring to things
  • 01.130 referring to people
  • 01.131 used with personal pronouns
  • 01.132 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.133 's
  • 01.134 WARNING
  • 01.135 qualifiers
  • 01.136 use of adjectives
  • 01.137 used with 'else'
  • 01.138 structures used with 'some-' and 'every-'
  • 01.139 structures used with 'any-'
  • 01.140 structures used with 'no-'
  • 01.141 Showing that two people do the same thing: reciprocal pronouns
  • 01.143 'each' as subject
  • 01.144 's
  • 01.145 Joining clauses together: relative pronouns
  • 01.146 'who' and 'whom'
  • 01.147 'which'
  • 01.148 'that'
  • 01.149 'whose'
  • 01.150 Asking questions: interrogative pronouns
  • 01.152 reported questions
  • 01.153 Other pronouns
  • 01.155 'all', 'both', and 'each' for emphasis
  • 01.156 numbers
  • 01.157 other pronouns
  • 01.161 Identifying what you are talking about: determiners
  • 01.162 The specific way: using 'the'
  • 01.164 pronouncing 'the'
  • 01.165 'the' with a noun
  • 01.166 nouns referring to one thing only
  • 01.167 specific places and organizations
  • 01.168 generalizing
  • 01.169 formal generalizations
  • 01.170 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.171 referring back
  • 01.172 things connected with what has been mentioned
  • 01.173 'the' with longer noun groups
  • 01.174 adding modifiers
  • 01.175 modifiers: specifying or expanding
  • 01.176 adding qualifiers
  • 01.177 'the' with uncount nouns
  • 01.178 superlatives
  • 01.179 emphasizing 'the'
  • 01.180 'the' with general determiners
  • 01.181 'the' with numbers
  • 01.182 The specific way: using 'this', 'that', 'these', and 'those'
  • 01.183 'this' and 'these'
  • 01.185 'that' and 'those'
  • 01.187 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.190 using 'those' instead of 'the'
  • 01.191 informal use of 'this' and 'these'
  • 01.192 The specific way: using possessive determiners
  • 01.193 table of possessive determiners
  • 01.194 WARNING
  • 01.195 position
  • 01.196 WARNING
  • 01.197 agreement with noun
  • 01.198 use of 'own'
  • 01.199 uses of possessives
  • 01.202 USAGE NOTE
  • 01.205 WARNING
  • 01.206 other possessives
  • 01.207 used in titles
  • 01.208 The general way
  • 01.209 with count nouns
  • 01.210 with uncount nouns
  • 01.211 WARNING
  • 01.212 using nouns without determiners
  • 01.213 The general way: using 'a' and 'an'
  • 01.214 choosing 'a' or 'an'
  • 01.215 mentioning things for the first time
  • 01.216 adding modifiers and qualifiers
  • 01.217 complements of link verbs
  • 01.218 'a' and 'an' with uncount nouns
  • 01.219 using individuals to generalize
  • 01.220 nouns referring to one thing only
  • 01.221 The general way: other determiners
  • 01.224 'any'
  • 01.225 'another' and 'other'
  • 01.226 selecting from a group
  • 01.227 'all', 'both', and 'either'
  • 01.228 'each' and 'every'
  • 01.229 'little' and 'much'
  • 01.230 'certain', 'numerous', 'various'
  • 01.231 'more', 'few', 'less'
  • 01.232 other expressions
  • 01.233 modifying determiners
  • 01.234 using 'one'
  • 01.236 predeterminers
  • 02.000 Chapter 2: Giving information about people and things
  • 02.001 Introduction
  • 02.002 Describing things: adjectives
  • 02.003 main points about adjectives
  • 02.004 WARNING
  • 02.005 structure
  • 02.007 types of adjective
  • 02.012 structural restrictions
  • 02.014 order of adjectives
  • 02.015 '-ing' and '-ed' adjectives
  • 02.016 compound adjectives
  • 02.017 comparing things
  • 02.018 submodifiers
  • 02.019 Information focusing: adjective structures
  • 02.020 attributive position
  • 02.022 predicative position
  • 02.023 attributive and predicative positions
  • 02.024 Identifying qualities: qualitative adjectives
  • 02.025 gradability
  • 02.029 Identifying the class that something belongs to: classifying adjectives
  • 02.033 adjectives which are of both types
  • 02.034 Identifying colours: colour adjectives
  • 02.035 submodifying colour adjectives
  • 02.036 approximate colours
  • 02.037 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.038 comparison of colour adjectives
  • 02.039 colour nouns
  • 02.040 Showing strong feelings: emphasizing adjectives
  • 02.041 emphasizing disapproval
  • 02.042 WARNING
  • 02.043 'very' as an emphasizing adjective
  • 02.044 Making the reference more precise: postdeterminers
  • 02.045 Special classes of adjectives
  • 02.046 attributive adjectives
  • 02.048 predicative adjectives
  • 02.050 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.055 adjectives followed by 'to'-infinitive clauses
  • 02.057 adjectives followed by 'that'-clauses
  • 02.058 Position of adjectives in noun groups
  • 02.060 position of noun modifiers and adjectives
  • 02.061 two or more adjectives
  • 02.062 adjectives after nouns
  • 02.063 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.067 Special forms: '-ing' adjectives
  • 02.068 describing an effect
  • 02.072 describing a process or state
  • 02.076 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.077 form and meaning
  • 02.081 Special forms: '-ed' adjectives
  • 02.084 qualitative '-ed' adjectives
  • 02.085 form and meaning
  • 02.087 classifying '-ed' adjectives
  • 02.089 modifying '-ed' adjectives
  • 02.091 '-ed' adjectives with an active meaning
  • 02.092 '-ed' adjectives after link verbs
  • 02.093 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.094 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.095 '-ed' adjectives formed from nouns
  • 02.096 '-ed' adjectives unrelated to verbs or nouns
  • 02.098 Compound adjectives
  • 02.099 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.100 formation patterns
  • 02.102 compound qualitative adjectives
  • 02.103 compound classifying adjectives
  • 02.104 compound colour adjectives
  • 02.105 long compound adjectives
  • 02.107 foreign compound adjectives
  • 02.108 Comparing things: comparatives
  • 02.109 as modifiers
  • 02.110 as complements
  • 02.111 qualifiers after comparatives
  • 02.112 position of comparatives
  • 02.113 'more' and 'more than'
  • 02.114 comparatives as headwords
  • 02.115 'less'
  • 02.116 contrasted comparatives
  • 02.117 Comparing things: superlatives
  • 02.118 WARNING
  • 02.119 used as modifiers
  • 02.120 used as complements
  • 02.121 qualifying structures
  • 02.122 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.123 used with other adjectives
  • 02.124 superlatives as headwords
  • 02.125 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.126 used with ordinal numbers
  • 02.127 'the least'
  • 02.128 Other ways of comparing things: saying that things are similar
  • 02.129 indicating that things have the same quality
  • 02.133 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.137 'like'
  • 02.139 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.140 'same as'
  • 02.141 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.143 adjectives meaning 'the same'
  • 02.144 submodifiers used for making comparisons
  • 02.145 Indicating different amounts of a quality: submodifiers
  • 02.146 submodifying adjectives
  • 02.148 intensifying qualitative adjectives
  • 02.150 reducing qualitative adjectives
  • 02.151 indicating extent
  • 02.152 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.154 indicating sufficiency
  • 02.155 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.157 indicating insufficiency
  • 02.158 indicating excess
  • 02.159 WARNING
  • 02.161 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.162 Indicating the degree of difference: submodifiers in comparison
  • 02.165 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.174 Modifying using nouns: noun modifiers
  • 02.175 singular and plural forms
  • 02.176 using more than one noun modifier
  • 02.177 used with adjectives
  • 02.178 use of proper names
  • 02.179 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.180 Indicating possession or association: possessive structures
  • 02.181 possessive form
  • 02.182 spelling and pronunciation
  • 02.183 other uses of 's
  • 02.184 other ways of indicating possession
  • 02.185 Indicating close connection: apostrophe s / 's
  • 02.188 Other structures with apostrophe s / 's
  • 02.189 used in qualifying phrases
  • 02.190 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.193 Talking about quantities and amounts
  • 02.194 Talking about amounts of things: quantifiers
  • 02.196 only with specific determiners
  • 02.197 with place names
  • 02.198 verb agreement
  • 02.199 with plural nouns
  • 02.200 with uncount nouns and singular nouns
  • 02.201 with plural nouns and uncount nouns
  • 02.202 with all types of noun
  • 02.203 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.204 WARNING
  • 02.205 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.207 omitting 'of'
  • 02.208 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.209 submodifying quantifiers
  • 02.211 Talking about amounts of things: other partitives
  • 02.212 partitives with uncount nouns
  • 02.214 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.215 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.216 measurement nouns
  • 02.217 referring to contents and containers
  • 02.218 ending in '-ful'
  • 02.219 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.220 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.221 referring to parts and fractions
  • 02.222 referring to individual items
  • 02.223 'pair of'
  • 02.224 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 02.225 cardinal numbers
  • 02.226 ordinal numbers
  • 02.227 fractions
  • 02.228 measuring things
  • 02.229 age
  • 02.230 Referring to the number of things: cardinal numbers
  • 02.231 'one'
  • 02.233 talking about negative amounts
  • 02.234 numbers and agreement
  • 02.236 numbers with ordinals and postdeterminers
  • 02.237 numbers as pronouns
  • 02.238 expressing large numbers
  • 02.239 WARNING
  • 02.241 approximate quantities
  • 02.242 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.243 numbers as labels
  • 02.244 numbers as quantifiers
  • 02.245 number quantifiers as pronouns
  • 02.246 numbers as qualifiers
  • 02.247 numbers in compound adjectives
  • 02.248 numbers with time expressions
  • 02.249 Referring to things in a sequence: ordinal numbers
  • 02.250 as modifiers
  • 02.251 written forms
  • 02.252 ordinals with 'of'
  • 02.253 as pronouns
  • 02.255 ordinals used as adverbs
  • 02.256 other uses of ordinals
  • 02.257 Referring to an exact part of something: fractions
  • 02.258 singular fractions
  • 02.259 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.260 plural fractions
  • 02.261 agreement with verb
  • 02.262 fractions as pronouns
  • 02.263 numbers followed by fractions
  • 02.264 'half' as predeterminer
  • 02.265 fractions expressed in figures
  • 02.266 expressing percentages
  • 02.267 Talking about measurements
  • 02.268 imperial and metric measurements
  • 02.269 as complements
  • 02.270 adjectives after measurements
  • 02.271 prepositional phrases after measurements
  • 02.272 measurement nouns used as modifiers
  • 02.273 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.275 Talking about age
  • 02.276 exact age
  • 02.277 approximate age
  • 02.280 indicating something's age
  • 02.281 Approximate amounts and measurements
  • 02.282 expressing minimum amounts
  • 02.283 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.284 expressing maximum amounts
  • 02.285 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.286 expressing approximate amounts
  • 02.287 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.289 Expanding the noun group: qualifiers
  • 02.290 qualifying structures
  • 02.292 Nouns with prepositional phrases
  • 02.294 'of'
  • 02.295 WARNING
  • 02.301 'with'
  • 02.302 'in'
  • 02.303 'by'
  • 02.304 with prepositional phrases
  • 02.306 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.308 Nouns with adjectives
  • 02.309 with comparative adjective groups
  • 02.310 Nouns with non-finite clauses
  • 02.311 with 'to'-infinitive clauses
  • 02.315 USAGE NOTE
  • 02.317 with past participle clauses
  • 02.318 with present participle clauses
  • 02.319 apposition
  • 03.000 Chapter 3: Making a message
  • 03.001 Making a message
  • 03.002 Indicating how many participants are involved: transitivity
  • 03.003 intransitive verbs
  • 03.004 transitive verbs
  • 03.005 intransitive or transitive verbs
  • 03.006 reciprocal verbs
  • 03.007 ditransitive verbs
  • 03.008 phrasal verbs and compound verbs
  • 03.009 Talking about events which involve only the subject: intransitive verbs
  • 03.011 intransitive verbs followed by prepositional phrases
  • 03.013 intransitive verbs followed by adjuncts
  • 03.014 verbs which are occasionally transitive
  • 03.015 Involving someone or something other than the subject: transitive verbs
  • 03.016 different types of object
  • 03.018 human objects
  • 03.020 transitive verbs which need an adjunct
  • 03.022 transitive verbs of position and movement
  • 03.023 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.025 reporting verbs
  • 03.027 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 03.028 true reflexive verbs
  • 03.030 reflexive pronouns used for emphasis
  • 03.031 WARNING
  • 03.033 Verbs with little meaning: delexical verbs
  • 03.034 verbs which are often delexical
  • 03.036 delexical verbs followed by singular noun
  • 03.037 delexical verbs followed by plural noun
  • 03.038 delexical verbs followed by uncount noun
  • 03.039 indicating a brief event
  • 03.040 using adjectives
  • 03.041 nouns with no equivalent verb
  • 03.042 nouns used with 'have'
  • 03.043 nouns used with 'take'
  • 03.044 nouns used with 'give'
  • 03.045 nouns used with 'make'
  • 03.046 nouns used with 'have' and 'take'
  • 03.047 Verbs which can be used in both intransitive and transitive clauses
  • 03.048 different meanings
  • 03.050 verbs which do not always need an object
  • 03.052 object already mentioned
  • 03.055 speaker's decisions on transitivity
  • 03.056 Verbs which can take an object or a prepositional phrase
  • 03.059 verbs of movement
  • 03.060 Changing your focus by changing the subject: ergative verbs
  • 03.061 changes
  • 03.063 food, movement, vehicles
  • 03.065 restrictions on ergative subjects
  • 03.067 ergative verbs which need adjuncts
  • 03.068 comparison of passive voice and ergative use
  • 03.069 Verbs which involve people doing the same thing to each other: reciprocal verbs
  • 03.070 reciprocal verbs with plural subject
  • 03.071 emphasizing equal involvement
  • 03.072 indicating unequal involvement
  • 03.074 Verbs which can have two objects: ditransitive verbs
  • 03.075 indirect objects in prepositional phrases
  • 03.076 pronouns as objects
  • 03.077 indirect objects with 'to'
  • 03.078 indirect objects with 'for'
  • 03.079 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.080 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.082 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.083 transitive uses
  • 03.084 Extending or changing the meaning of a verb: phrasal verbs
  • 03.086 intransitive phrasal verbs with adverbs
  • 03.088 intransitive phrasal verbs with prepositions
  • 03.090 preposition or adverb
  • 03.092 transitive phrasal verbs
  • 03.094 phrasal verbs used transitively and intransitively
  • 03.098 ergative phrasal verbs
  • 03.102 object position
  • 03.104 pronoun object
  • 03.105 abstract nouns as object
  • 03.106 object after first word
  • 03.107 prepositional objects
  • 03.108 transitive phrasal verbs with prepositions
  • 03.110 preposition or adverb
  • 03.112 intransitive three-word phrasal verbs
  • 03.114 transitive three-word phrasal verbs
  • 03.115 WARNING
  • 03.116 phrasal verbs in questions and relative clauses
  • 03.118 Verbs which consist of two parts: compound verbs
  • 03.119 WARNING
  • 03.120 written forms of compound verbs
  • 03.121 form of compound verbs
  • 03.123 intransitive compound verbs
  • 03.124 transitive compound verbs
  • 03.125 transitive or intransitive
  • 03.126 inflecting compound verbs
  • 03.127 Describing and identifying things: complementation
  • 03.128 complements
  • 03.129 verbs with object complements
  • 03.130 prepositional phrases
  • 03.131 'it' with 'be'
  • 03.132 'there' with 'be'
  • 03.133 Describing things: adjectives as complements of link verbs
  • 03.135 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.138 WARNING
  • 03.139 Saying that one thing is another thing: noun groups as complements of link verbs
  • 03.140 qualities
  • 03.141 using 'one'
  • 03.142 size, age, colour, shape
  • 03.143 types
  • 03.144 indicating identity
  • 03.145 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.146 pronouns as complements
  • 03.147 other complements
  • 03.148 combinations of verbs and prepositions
  • 03.149 Commenting: 'to'-infinitive clauses after complements
  • 03.150 commenting on behaviour
  • 03.151 commenting on suitability
  • 03.152 commenting on an event
  • 03.153 commenting on willingness
  • 03.154 commenting on something
  • 03.155 commenting on an action
  • 03.156 Describing as well as talking about an action: other verbs with complements
  • 03.157 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.161 fixed phrases
  • 03.162 Describing the object of a verb: object complements
  • 03.163 verbs of causing
  • 03.164 'keep', 'hold', 'leave'
  • 03.165 verbs of appointing
  • 03.166 verbs of opinion
  • 03.170 describing and naming
  • 03.171 titles
  • 03.172 describing states
  • 03.173 Describing something in other ways: adjuncts instead of complements
  • 03.174 use after 'be'
  • 03.175 use after other verbs
  • 03.176 adjuncts of place
  • 03.177 adjuncts of time
  • 03.178 use in transitive structures
  • 03.179 Indicating what role something has or how it is perceived: the preposition 'as'
  • 03.180 use in intransitive structures
  • 03.181 use in transitive structures
  • 03.183 Talking about closely linked actions: using two verbs together in phase
  • 03.186 verb forms
  • 03.190 Talking about two actions done by the same person: phase verbs together
  • 03.191 verbs followed by a present participle
  • 03.192 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.193 verbs followed by a 'to'-infinitive
  • 03.194 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.196 verbs with either form
  • 03.197 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.198 WARNING
  • 03.200 'to'-infinitive showing purpose
  • 03.201 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.202 'get' with a past participle
  • 03.203 Talking about two actions done by different people: phase verbs separated by an object
  • 03.204 use of possessive determiner
  • 03.205 transitive verbs with a present participle
  • 03.206 verbs also with an infinitive without 'to'
  • 03.207 transitive verbs with a 'to'-infinitive
  • 03.208 using the passive
  • 03.209 USAGE NOTE
  • 03.210 verbs followed by 'for' and a 'to'-infinitive
  • 03.211 transitive verbs with an infinitive without 'to'
  • 03.212 causative use of 'have' and 'get'
  • 03.213 'want' and 'need' with past participle
  • 04.000 Chapter 4: Varying the message
  • 04.001 Varying the message
  • 04.002 Statements, questions, orders, and suggestions
  • 04.003 mood
  • 04.004 types of mood
  • 04.006 giving information
  • 04.007 expressing opinions
  • 04.008 making promises
  • 04.009 emphasis
  • 04.010 Asking questions: the interrogative mood
  • 04.011 types of question
  • 04.012 position of auxiliary verbs
  • 04.014 'be' and 'have' as main verbs
  • 04.015 'tag'-questions
  • 04.016 'either/or' questions
  • 04.017 'Wh'-questions
  • 04.018 'wh'-words
  • 04.019 'wh'-word as subject
  • 04.020 'wh'-word as object or adverb
  • 04.021 questions without a verb
  • 04.022 'who' and 'whom'
  • 04.023 'whose'
  • 04.024 'which'
  • 04.025 'when' and 'where'
  • 04.026 'why'
  • 04.027 'how'
  • 04.028 'how' with other words
  • 04.029 'what'
  • 04.030 'whatever', 'wherever', and 'whoever'
  • 04.031 orders and instructions
  • 04.032 advice and warnings
  • 04.033 appeals
  • 04.034 explanations
  • 04.035 'let'
  • 04.036 confirming
  • 04.037 instructing
  • 04.038 offers and invitations
  • 04.039 requests, orders, and instructions
  • 04.040 rhetorical questions
  • 04.041 questions without a verb
  • 04.042 suggestions
  • 04.043 Forming negative statements
  • 04.046 WARNING
  • 04.048 'not'
  • 04.049 position in verb groups
  • 04.050 adding 'do'
  • 04.051 'not' with 'be'
  • 04.052 'not' with 'have' and 'have got'.
  • 04.053 position with non-finite verbs
  • 04.054 with finite and non-finite verbs
  • 04.055 contractions of 'not'
  • 04.056 USAGE NOTE
  • 04.057 other uses of 'not'
  • 04.059 'not' used for contrast
  • 04.060 'never'
  • 04.061 with simple forms of 'be'
  • 04.062 with simple forms of other verbs
  • 04.063 emphasis
  • 04.064 'never' in imperatives
  • 04.065 'no'
  • 04.067 'none'
  • 04.068 'none of'
  • 04.069 words beginning with 'no'
  • 04.070 followed by 'but'
  • 04.071 'neither' and 'nor'
  • 04.072 'neither' in replies
  • 04.074 'neither' with singular nouns
  • 04.075 'neither of'
  • 04.076 Forming negative statements: negative affixes
  • 04.077 'un-'
  • 04.078 'in-', 'il-', 'ir-'
  • 04.079 'dis-'
  • 04.080 'non-'
  • 04.081 '-less'
  • 04.082 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 04.083 Forming negative statements: broad negatives
  • 04.084 position in clause
  • 04.086 with simple form of 'be'
  • 04.087 with other verbs
  • 04.088 as first word in the clause
  • 04.089 USAGE NOTE
  • 04.090 'almost'
  • 04.091 'at all'
  • 04.092 'whatsoever'
  • 04.093 'ever'
  • 04.094 other expressions
  • 04.095 Using modals
  • 04.097 The main uses of modals
  • 04.098 attitude to information
  • 04.099 attitude to intentions
  • 04.100 attitude to people
  • 04.101 use in complex sentences
  • 04.102 form of following verb
  • 04.104 no inflections
  • 04.105 negatives
  • 04.106 questions
  • 04.107 question tags
  • 04.108 contractions
  • 04.109 USAGE NOTE
  • 04.110 Referring to time
  • 04.111 the future: 'shall' and 'will'
  • 04.113 ability in the past: 'could'
  • 04.114 reported speech
  • 04.115 regularity in the past: 'would'
  • 04.116 thoughts about the future: 'would'
  • 04.117 unwillingness: 'would not'
  • 04.118 Indicating possibility
  • 04.119 skills and abilities: 'can' and 'could'
  • 04.120 awareness: 'can' and 'could'
  • 04.121 capability: 'can' and 'could'
  • 04.122 WARNING
  • 04.123 Indicating likelihood
  • 04.124 assumption: 'will' and 'would'
  • 04.125 certainty: 'would' and 'should'
  • 04.126 belief: 'must' and 'cannot'
  • 04.127 possibility: 'could', 'might', 'may'
  • 04.128 strong possibility: adding 'well'
  • 04.129 negative possibility: 'might not' and 'may not'
  • 04.130 impossibility: 'could not' and 'cannot'
  • 04.131 strong assertion: 'could' with negatives and comparatives
  • 04.132 talking about the future
  • 04.133 certainty: 'will'
  • 04.134 certainty: 'shall'
  • 04.135 certainty: 'must' and 'cannot'
  • 04.136 expectation: 'should' and 'ought to'
  • 04.137 possibility: 'could', 'might', and 'may'
  • 04.139 talking about the past
  • 04.140 expectation: 'should have', 'ought to have'
  • 04.141 possibility: 'would have'
  • 04.142 possibility: 'could have', 'might have'
  • 04.143 uncertainty: 'could have', 'might have', 'may have'
  • 04.144 negative possibility: 'might not have', 'may not have'
  • 04.145 impossibility: 'could' with a negative
  • 04.146 permission: 'can'
  • 04.147 formal permission: 'may'
  • 04.148 permission in the past: 'could'
  • 04.149 WARNING
  • 04.150 Indicating unacceptability
  • 04.151 prohibition: 'cannot'
  • 04.152 prohibition: 'may not'
  • 04.153 prohibition: 'will not'
  • 04.154 prohibition: 'shall not'
  • 04.155 prohibition: imperatives
  • 04.156 unacceptability: 'should not'
  • 04.157 unacceptability: 'must not'
  • 04.158 Interacting with other people
  • 04.160 Giving instructions and making requests
  • 04.161 instructions and appeals
  • 04.162 instructions and appeals: 'will'
  • 04.163 instructions and appeals: 'would'
  • 04.164 instructions and appeals: 'could'
  • 04.165 appeals: 'can'
  • 04.166 requests
  • 04.167 requests: 'can'
  • 04.168 requests: 'could'
  • 04.169 requests: 'can't' and 'couldn't'
  • 04.170 requests: 'may' and 'might'
  • 04.171 instructions: 'would like'
  • 04.172 firm instructions: 'will'
  • 04.173 formal instructions: 'shall'
  • 04.174 imperatives
  • 04.175 requests: 'would like' and 'should like'
  • 04.176 polite additions to requests
  • 04.177 Making an offer or an invitation
  • 04.178 offers and invitations: 'will'
  • 04.179 offers and invitations: 'would' and 'wouldn't'
  • 04.180 offers of help: 'can'
  • 04.181 offers of help: 'may'
  • 04.182 offers of help: 'shall' and 'should'
  • 04.183 emphasizing ability: 'can'
  • 04.184 persuasive invitations: 'must'
  • 04.186 Making suggestions
  • 04.187 suggesting: 'could'
  • 04.188 suggesting: 'should' and 'ought to'
  • 04.189 persuading: 'must'
  • 04.190 polite suggestions: 'might'
  • 04.191 'might as well', 'may as well'
  • 04.192 suggesting: 'shall'
  • 04.194 Stating an intention
  • 04.195 intentions: 'will'
  • 04.197 intentions: 'shall'
  • 04.198 intentions: 'must'
  • 04.200 Indicating unwillingness or refusal
  • 04.201 unwillingness: 'will not' and 'won't'
  • 04.202 unwillingness: 'would not'
  • 04.203 unwillingness: 'cannot'
  • 04.204 unwillingness: 'couldn't'
  • 04.206 Expressing a wish
  • 04.207 wishes: 'would'
  • 04.209 wishes: 'should'
  • 04.210 preference: 'would rather', 'would sooner'
  • 04.211 wishes: 'would have'
  • 04.212 USAGE NOTE
  • 04.213 regret: 'would that'
  • 04.214 hopes and wishes: 'may'
  • 04.215 Indicating importance
  • 04.216 'must'
  • 04.217 necessity: 'will have to', 'will need to'
  • 04.218 necessity: 'shall have to'
  • 04.219 importance: 'should' and 'ought to'
  • 04.220 Introducing what you are going to say
  • 04.221 importance: 'must'
  • 04.222 importance: 'should' and 'ought to'
  • 04.223 politeness: 'can' and 'could'
  • 04.225 approval: 'may' and 'might'
  • 04.226 politeness: 'should' and 'would'
  • 04.227 Expressions used instead of modals
  • 04.228 saying whether something is possible
  • 04.236 saying how likely something is
  • 04.239 giving instructions and making requests
  • 04.241 stating an intention
  • 04.245 expressing unwillingness
  • 04.248 indicating importance
  • 04.252 Semi-modals
  • 04.253 'dare' and 'need'
  • 04.254 inflected forms
  • 04.255 use with other modals
  • 04.256 use with 'do'
  • 04.257 other uses of 'dare' and 'need'
  • 04.258 'used to'
  • 04.260 omitting the following verb group
  • 04.261 negatives
  • 04.262 questions
  • 05.000 Chapter 5: Expressing time
  • 05.001 Introduction
  • 05.003 position of adjuncts
  • 05.004 adjuncts of duration and frequency
  • 05.006 subordinate clauses
  • 05.007 The present
  • 05.008 the present moment
  • 05.009 general present including present moment
  • 05.010 general truths
  • 05.011 regular or habitual actions
  • 05.012 used in reviews
  • 05.013 USAGE NOTE
  • 05.014 used in commentaries
  • 05.015 used in reporting
  • 05.016 used in commenting
  • 05.017 the moment of speaking
  • 05.018 emphasizing the present moment
  • 05.019 progressive change
  • 05.020 habitual actions
  • 05.021 Emphasizing time in the present: using adjuncts
  • 05.022 general truths
  • 05.023 regular actions
  • 05.024 frequent actions
  • 05.025 adjuncts with present tenses
  • 05.026 The past
  • 05.027 Stating a definite time in the past: the simple past
  • 05.028 past situations
  • 05.030 habitual and regular actions
  • 05.031 repeated actions
  • 05.032 contrasting events
  • 05.033 The past in relation to the present: the present perfect
  • 05.034 WARNING
  • 05.035 situations that still exist
  • 05.036 emphasizing duration of event
  • 05.037 Events before a particular time in the past: the past perfect
  • 05.038 emphasizing time and duration
  • 05.039 expectations and wishes
  • 05.040 Emphasizing time in the past: using adjuncts
  • 05.041 types of adjuncts
  • 05.042 WARNING
  • 05.043 used for emphasis
  • 05.044 used with the simple past
  • 05.045 used with the past continuous
  • 05.046 used with the present perfect
  • 05.049 used with the past perfect
  • 05.052 The future
  • 05.053 Indicating the future using 'will'
  • 05.054 general truths
  • 05.055 indicating certainty
  • 05.057 indicating duration
  • 05.058 Other ways of indicating the future
  • 05.060 Adjuncts with future tenses
  • 05.061 'tomorrow'
  • 05.062 'next'
  • 05.063 Other uses of tenses
  • 05.064 present tenses
  • 05.065 Firm plans for the future
  • 05.066 Forward planning from a time in the past
  • 05.067 events planned in the past
  • 05.069 Timing by adjuncts
  • 05.070 relative time
  • 05.073 necessary time
  • 05.074 previously mentioned time
  • 05.075 Emphasizing the unexpected: continuing, stopping, or not happening
  • 05.076 'still' for existing situations
  • 05.077 'still' for expected situations
  • 05.078 'yet' for expected situations
  • 05.081 likely change
  • 05.082 past not present
  • 05.083 'already' for emphasizing occurrence
  • 05.084 Specific times
  • 05.085 clock times
  • 05.086 times of the day
  • 05.087 naming days
  • 05.088 months, seasons, and dates
  • 05.089 years, decades, and centuries
  • 05.090 'at' for specific times
  • 05.091 'at' for relating events
  • 05.093 'in' for periods of time
  • 05.094 'in' for specific time
  • 05.095 'on' for short periods of time
  • 05.096 'on' for longer periods of time
  • 05.097 'on' for subsequent events
  • 05.098 ordering of time expressions
  • 05.099 approximate times
  • 05.100 WARNING
  • 05.102 'during' for periods of time
  • 05.104 WARNING
  • 05.105 'over' for events
  • 05.106 relating events and times
  • 05.107 order of events
  • 05.108 simultaneous events
  • 05.109 linking adverbs
  • 05.110 'by' for specific time
  • 05.111 Subordinate time clauses
  • 05.112 Extended uses of time expressions
  • 05.113 Frequency and duration
  • 05.114 Adjuncts of frequency
  • 05.116 estimating frequency
  • 05.117 regular intervals
  • 05.119 particular occurrences of an event
  • 05.120 '-ly' time adverbs
  • 05.121 prepositional phrases
  • 05.122 development and regular occurrence
  • 05.123 Adjuncts of duration
  • 05.124 prepositional phrases
  • 05.125 'for' for length of time
  • 05.128 'for' for emphasis
  • 05.130 'in' and 'within' for end of a period
  • 05.132 'for' and 'in' with general or specific time
  • 05.133 noun group adjuncts
  • 05.134 approximate duration
  • 05.135 Indicating the whole of a period
  • 05.137 Indicating the start or end of a period
  • 05.138 start time
  • 05.140 end time
  • 05.142 start and end times
  • 05.143 Duration expressions as modifiers
  • 06.000 Chapter 6: Expressing manner and place
  • 06.001 Introduction to adjuncts
  • 06.002 adverbial groups
  • 06.003 prepositional phrases
  • 06.004 noun groups
  • 06.005 adding meaning to verb groups
  • 06.006 adding meaning to clauses
  • 06.007 normal position: end of clause
  • 06.008 beginning of clause for emphasis
  • 06.009 between subject and verb
  • 06.011 WARNING
  • 06.012 minor positional points
  • 06.013 manner, place, then time
  • 06.014 adjuncts of the same type
  • 06.015 inversion after adjuncts
  • 06.016 types of adverbs
  • 06.017 '-ly' adverbs
  • 06.018 spelling
  • 06.020 adverb meaning
  • 06.024 same form as adjective
  • 06.026 two forms
  • 06.027 no adverb from adjective
  • 06.028 USAGE NOTE
  • 06.029 adverbs not related to adjectives
  • 06.030 Comparative and superlative adverbs
  • 06.032 irregular forms
  • 06.035 USAGE NOTE
  • 06.036 adverbs of manner
  • 06.037 manner
  • 06.039 feelings and manner
  • 06.041 circumstances
  • 06.043 forms
  • 06.044 USAGE NOTE
  • 06.045 Adverbs of degree
  • 06.047 from adjectives
  • 06.048 position in clause
  • 06.049 emphasizing adverbs
  • 06.051 submodifiers
  • 06.052 other adverbs of degree
  • 06.053 Giving information about place: prepositions
  • 06.056 WARNING
  • 06.058 after verbs indicating position
  • 06.059 after verbs indicating movement
  • 06.060 after verbs indicating activities
  • 06.062 at beginning of clause: for emphasis or contrast
  • 06.063 at beginning of clause: inversion of subject and verb
  • 06.064 Indicating position
  • 06.065 prepositions indicating position
  • 06.066 USAGE NOTE
  • 06.067 USAGE NOTE
  • 06.068 prepositions with comparative forms
  • 06.071 specific distances
  • 06.072 indicating position and distance
  • 06.073 Indicating direction
  • 06.074 prepositions used
  • 06.075 USAGE NOTE
  • 06.076 direction relative to the front
  • 06.077 several directions
  • 06.078 starting point
  • 06.079 'from' before prepositions and adverbs
  • 06.080 Prepositional phrases as qualifiers
  • 06.082 adverbs
  • 06.083 adverbs indicating position
  • 06.085 USAGE NOTE
  • 06.086 USAGE NOTE
  • 06.087 adverbs of position with a following adjunct
  • 06.088 adverbs of position with adjunct, modifier, or qualifier
  • 06.089 adverbs of position: comparatives and superlatives
  • 06.090 indefinite place adverbs
  • 06.091 adding information
  • 06.092 different or additional places
  • 06.094 adverbs indicating destinations and targets
  • 06.095 relative direction
  • 06.096 movement in several directions
  • 06.097 movement away
  • 06.098 movement along a path
  • 06.099 movement across or past something
  • 06.100 indefinite direction
  • 06.101 Noun groups referring to place: place names
  • 06.102 adverbs as qualifiers
  • 06.104 verbs after place names
  • 06.105 place names referring to people
  • 06.106 place names referring to events
  • 06.107 place names used as modifiers
  • 06.108 Other uses of prepositional phrases
  • 06.109 referring to time
  • 06.110 referring to manner
  • 06.112 'like' and 'as' in comparison
  • 06.115 circumstances of an action
  • 06.116 reason or cause of an action
  • 06.117 in phrasal verbs
  • 06.118 verbs with optional prepositional phrases
  • 06.119 indirect objects of ditransitive verbs
  • 06.120 with reciprocal verbs
  • 06.121 with passive verbs
  • 06.122 position of prepositional phrases and adverbs after verbs
  • 06.123 Prepositional phrases after nouns and adjectives
  • 06.124 particular prepositions after nouns and adjectives
  • 06.125 comparisons with 'than' and 'like'
  • 06.126 'of'
  • 06.127 Extended meanings of prepositions
  • 07.000 Chapter 7: Reporting what people say or think
  • 07.001 Reporting what people say or think
  • 07.005 Indicating that you are reporting: reporting verbs
  • 07.006 basic reporting verbs
  • 07.007 showing the purpose of speaking
  • 07.008 WARNING
  • 07.009 verbs of thinking and knowing
  • 07.010 verbs of learning and perceiving
  • 07.012 indicating the way that something is said
  • 07.013 negatives in reporting clauses
  • 07.014 Reporting someone's actual words: quote structures
  • 07.017 verbs which describe the manner of speaking
  • 07.018 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 07.019 position of reporting verb
  • 07.022 inversion of subject and reporting verb
  • 07.023 punctuation of quotes
  • 07.024 Reporting in your own words: report structures
  • 07.025 types of reported clause
  • 07.026 Reporting statements and thoughts
  • 07.027 verbs used with 'that'-clauses
  • 07.028 position of reported clauses
  • 07.029 Reporting questions
  • 07.030 the reporting verb
  • 07.031 WARNING
  • 07.032 'yes/no' questions
  • 07.034 'wh'-questions
  • 07.036 reporting requests made to the hearer
  • 07.037 USAGE NOTE
  • 07.040 reporting suggestions
  • 07.042 reporting intentions and hopes
  • 07.043 USAGE NOTE
  • 07.045 reporting uncertain things
  • 07.046 Time reference in report structures
  • 07.047 past tense for both verbs
  • 07.048 reporting verb in other tenses
  • 07.049 tense of verb in reported clause
  • 07.050 modals in reported clauses
  • 07.051 USAGE NOTE
  • 07.056 reporting conditional statements
  • 07.057 Making your reference appropriate
  • 07.058 referring to people and things
  • 07.059 referring to time
  • 07.060 referring to places
  • 07.061 Using reporting verbs for politeness
  • 07.063 'suppose' and 'wonder'
  • 07.064 Avoiding mention of the person speaking or thinking
  • 07.065 use of passives to express general beliefs
  • 07.066 'seem' and 'appear'
  • 07.067 USAGE NOTE
  • 07.068 referring to the speaker
  • 07.069 use of the passive
  • 07.070 USAGE NOTE
  • 07.071 referring to the hearer
  • 07.072 verbs with or without the hearer as object
  • 07.073 the hearer in prepositional phrases
  • 07.077 reflexive pronouns
  • 07.078 objects with reporting verbs
  • 07.080 USAGE NOTE
  • 07.081 prepositional phrases with reporting verbs
  • 07.082 other verbs used with reported clauses
  • 07.084 nouns used with reported clauses
  • 07.085 adjectives with reported clauses
  • 07.086 mentioning the cause of a feeling
  • 07.087 saying what someone knows
  • 07.088 commenting on a fact
  • 07.089 nominal use of 'that'-clauses
  • 07.092 nominal use of 'wh'-clauses
  • 08.000 Chapter 8: Combining messages
  • 08.001 Combining messages
  • 08.002 conjunctions
  • 08.004 subordinating conjunctions
  • 08.005 coordinating conjunctions
  • 08.006 Adverbial clauses
  • 08.007 position of adverbial clause
  • 08.008 Time clauses
  • 08.009 tenses in time clauses
  • 08.012 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.013 repeated events
  • 08.015 events in sequence
  • 08.019 saying when a situation began
  • 08.020 saying when a situation ends
  • 08.023 using non-finite clauses
  • 08.024 using prepositional phrases and adjectives
  • 08.025 Conditional clauses
  • 08.027 modals and imperatives
  • 08.028 tenses in conditional clauses
  • 08.029 common occurrences
  • 08.030 occurrences in the past
  • 08.031 possible situations
  • 08.032 possible future occurrences
  • 08.033 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.034 unlikely situations
  • 08.035 what might have been
  • 08.036 putting the verb first
  • 08.038 necessary conditions
  • 08.041 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.043 Purpose clauses
  • 08.044 types of purpose clause
  • 08.045 non-finite clauses
  • 08.047 finite clauses
  • 08.049 Reason clauses
  • 08.054 Result clauses
  • 08.060 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.065 Concessive clauses
  • 08.066 contrast
  • 08.069 exceptions
  • 08.070 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.071 non-finite clauses
  • 08.073 Place clauses
  • 08.078 Clauses of manner
  • 08.079 saying how something is done
  • 08.080 making comparisons
  • 08.083 Relative clauses
  • 08.084 relative pronouns
  • 08.085 kinds of relative clause
  • 08.086 punctuation
  • 08.087 use after pronouns
  • 08.088 non-finite clauses
  • 08.089 Using relative pronouns in defining clauses
  • 08.090 referring to people
  • 08.091 referring to things
  • 08.092 Using relative pronouns in non-defining clauses
  • 08.093 referring to people
  • 08.094 referring to things
  • 08.095 Using relative pronouns with prepositions
  • 08.096 no pronoun
  • 08.097 indirect objects
  • 08.098 formal use
  • 08.099 phrasal verbs
  • 08.100 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.101 Using 'whose'
  • 08.103 Using other relative pronouns
  • 08.104 non-defining clauses
  • 08.105 defining clauses
  • 08.108 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.109 Additional points about non-defining relative clauses
  • 08.110 commenting on a fact
  • 08.111 commenting on a time or situation
  • 08.112 Nominal relative clauses
  • 08.117 Non-finite clauses
  • 08.118 kinds of non-finite clause
  • 08.119 position of non-finite clauses
  • 08.120 Using non-defining clauses
  • 08.121 present participle: simultaneous events
  • 08.122 present participle: one action after another
  • 08.123 present participle: reasons
  • 08.125 'having' + past participle: results
  • 08.126 past participle: earlier events
  • 08.127 mentioning the subject
  • 08.129 present participle
  • 08.130 past participle
  • 08.131 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.132 Using defining clauses
  • 08.133 use after pronouns
  • 08.134 Other structures used like non-finite clauses
  • 08.137 Coordination
  • 08.139 Linking clauses
  • 08.140 omitting words in the second clause
  • 08.141 functions of coordinating conjunctions
  • 08.142 related facts
  • 08.143 sequence
  • 08.144 two negative facts
  • 08.145 contrast
  • 08.146 alternatives
  • 08.147 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.148 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.149 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.150 non-finite clauses
  • 08.152 Linking verbs
  • 08.153 intransitive verbs
  • 08.154 transitive verbs
  • 08.155 omitting the auxiliary
  • 08.156 emphasizing repetition or duration
  • 08.157 USAGE NOTE
  • 08.159 Linking noun groups
  • 08.161 alternatives
  • 08.162 omitting determiners
  • 08.163 referring to one person or thing
  • 08.164 omitting adjectives
  • 08.165 verb agreement
  • 08.166 linking pronouns
  • 08.168 Linking adjectives and adverbs
  • 08.169 qualitative adjectives
  • 08.170 colour adjectives
  • 08.171 classifying adjectives
  • 08.172 different kinds of adjectives
  • 08.173 adjectives with plural nouns
  • 08.174 adjectives after verbs
  • 08.175 using other conjunctions
  • 08.176 linking adverbs
  • 08.178 Linking other word groups
  • 08.179 linking prepositions
  • 08.180 linking prepositional phrases
  • 08.181 linking modifiers and determiners
  • 08.182 Emphasizing coordinating conjunctions
  • 08.188 Linking more than two clauses or word groups
  • 08.189 linking adjectives
  • 09.000 Chapter 9: Making texts
  • 09.001 Making texts: cohesion
  • 09.002 Referring back
  • 09.003 pronouns
  • 09.004 determiners
  • 09.006 other ways of referring back
  • 09.007 demonstratives referring to things
  • 09.010 demonstratives referring to sentences
  • 09.011 'previous'
  • 09.012 'above'
  • 09.013 'former' and 'latter'
  • 09.014 USAGE NOTE
  • 09.015 time
  • 09.016 place
  • 09.017 manner
  • 09.018 Referring back in a general way
  • 09.019 referring to spoken or written texts
  • 09.020 referring to ideas
  • 09.021 referring to what is mentioned
  • 09.022 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 09.023 referring to pieces of writing
  • 09.024 'so' as substitute complement
  • 09.025 'so' and 'not' after 'if'
  • 09.026 'so' and 'not' with report verbs
  • 09.027 'do so'
  • 09.028 Comparing with something already mentioned
  • 09.029 'such' as a determiner
  • 09.030 'such' as a predeterminer
  • 09.031 'such' as an adjective
  • 09.033 adjectives
  • 09.034 'same'
  • 09.035 'the same'
  • 09.037 'the opposite' and 'the reverse'
  • 09.038 other adjectives
  • 09.039 adjuncts
  • 09.041 Referring forward
  • 09.042 'this' and 'these'
  • 09.044 'following'
  • 09.045 'next'
  • 09.046 'below'
  • 09.047 'such'
  • 09.048 other ways
  • 09.049 Leaving out words: ellipsis
  • 09.050 contrasting subjects
  • 09.051 contrasting tense or modality
  • 09.052 'do'
  • 09.053 'be' as a main verb
  • 09.054 'have' as a main verb
  • 09.055 ellipsis with 'not'
  • 09.056 USAGE NOTE
  • 09.059 repeating the main verb
  • 09.060 contrasting objects and adjuncts
  • 09.061 USAGE NOTE
  • 09.063 Ellipsis in conversation
  • 09.064 ellipsis in questions
  • 09.066 ellipsis in replies
  • 09.068 ellipsis in agreement
  • 10.000 Chapter 10: The structure of information
  • 10.001 Introduction
  • 10.003 passive voice
  • 10.004 cleft structures
  • 10.005 impersonal 'it'
  • 10.006 'there' with 'be'
  • 10.007 adjuncts
  • 10.008 Focusing on the thing affected: the passive voice
  • 10.009 formation of passive tenses
  • 10.010 not mentioning the agent
  • 10.013 USAGE NOTE
  • 10.014 mentioning the agent with 'by'
  • 10.015 mentioning things or methods used
  • 10.016 passive of verbs referring to states
  • 10.017 phrasal verbs
  • 10.018 verbs usually used in the passive
  • 10.019 verbs rarely used in the passive
  • 10.020 ditransitive verbs
  • 10.021 transitive verbs with object complement
  • 10.022 reflexive verbs
  • 10.023 intransitive phrasal verbs
  • 10.024 USAGE NOTE
  • 10.025 Selecting focus: cleft sentences
  • 10.026 'it' as the subject
  • 10.027 other kinds of focus
  • 10.028 'what' or 'all' to focus on an action
  • 10.029 focusing on the topic
  • 10.030 focusing on what someone wants or needs
  • 10.031 Taking the focus off the subject: using impersonal 'it'
  • 10.034 Describing a place or situation
  • 10.035 using 'it' as an object
  • 10.036 describing the weather
  • 10.037 giving times and dates
  • 10.038 emphasizing time
  • 10.039 using link verbs
  • 10.040 using other verbs
  • 10.041 other ways of talking about actions
  • 10.042 Commenting on a fact that you are about to mention
  • 10.043 USAGE NOTE
  • 10.044 other verbs
  • 10.045 passives of reporting verbs
  • 10.046 saying that something exists
  • 10.048 saying that something happened
  • 10.049 describing something that is happening
  • 10.050 verb agreement
  • 10.051 contractions with 'there'
  • 10.052 'there' with adjectives
  • 10.053 'there' with other verbs
  • 10.054 formal and literary uses
  • 10.056 Commenting on your statement: sentence adjuncts
  • 10.057 indicating your opinion
  • 10.058 USAGE NOTE
  • 10.059 distancing and qualifying
  • 10.060 indicating viewpoint
  • 10.061 indicating quality of the agent
  • 10.062 indicating your justification for a statement
  • 10.063 assuming hearer's agreement
  • 10.064 indicating reality or possibility
  • 10.065 indicating your attitude
  • 10.066 using infinitive clauses
  • 10.067 politeness
  • 10.068 specification
  • 10.069 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 10.070 generalization
  • 10.071 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 10.072 PRODUCTIVE FEATURE
  • 10.073 Showing connections: linking adjuncts
  • 10.074 indicating an addition
  • 10.075 indicating a parallel
  • 10.076 contrasts and alternatives
  • 10.077 causes
  • 10.078 indicating sequence in time
  • 10.079 ordering points
  • 10.080 conjunctions
  • 10.081 linking adjuncts after conjunctions
  • 10.082 Indicating a change in a conversation
  • 10.084 USAGE NOTE
  • 10.085 Emphasizing
  • 10.086 emphasizing exactness
  • 10.087 Indicating the most relevant thing: focusing adverbs
  • 10.088 restricting
  • 10.089 selecting
  • 10.090 position of focusing adverbs
  • 10.091 USAGE NOTE
  • 10.092 Putting something first: fronting
  • 10.093 adjuncts
  • 10.094 reported questions
  • 10.095 other clause elements
  • 10.096 Introducing your statement: prefacing structures
  • 10.097 prefaces to second part of sentence
  • 10.098 classifying
  • 10.099 labelling
  • 10.100 other ways of labelling
  • 10.101 using sentences as prefaces
  • 10.102 Doing by saying: performative verbs
  • 10.105 USAGE NOTE
  • 10.106 Exclamations
  • 10.107 showing your reactions
  • 10.108 other clause elements
  • 10.109 rhetorical questions
  • 10.110 Making a statement into a question: question tags
  • 10.111 forming tags
  • 10.112 checking statements
  • 10.113 replying to tags
  • 10.114 other uses of tags
  • 10.115 Addressing people: vocatives
  • 10.116 position of vocatives
  • 10.117 titles
  • 10.118 WARNING
  • 10.119 other vocatives