7.51 USAGE NOTE

When you want to report a statement or question about someone's ability to do something, you normally use 'could'.

• They believed that war could be avoided.
• Nell would not admit that she could not cope.

If you want to report a statement about possibility, you normally use 'might'.

• They told me it might flood here.
• He said you might need money.

If the possibility is a strong one, you use 'must'.

• I told her she must be out of her mind.

When you want to report a statement giving permission or a request for permission, you normally use 'could'. 'Might' is used in more formal English.

• I told him he couldn't have it.
• Madeleine asked if she might borrow a pen and some paper.

When you want to report a prediction, promise, or expectation, or a question about the future, you normally use 'would'.

• She said they would all miss us.
• He insisted that reforms would save the system, not destroy it.

7.52

If the reported event or situation still exists or is still in the future, and you are using a present tense of the reporting verb, you use 'can' instead of 'could', 'may' instead of 'might', and 'will' or 'shall' instead of 'would'.

• Helen says I can share her flat.
• I think some of the sheep may die this year.
• I don't believe he will come.

Note that you cannot use 'can have' instead of 'could have', or 'will have' instead of 'would have'. You cannot use 'may have' instead of 'might have' if you are using it like 'could have' to talk about something that did not happen.

You can also use 'can', 'may', 'will', and 'shall' when you are using a past tense of the reporting verb, if you want to emphasize that the situation still exists or is still in the future.

• He claimed that a child's early experiences of being separated from his mother may cause psychological distress in later life.

If you are using a present reporting verb and want to indicate that the reported event or situation is hypothetical or very unlikely, you can use the modals 'could', 'might', or 'would'.

• I believe that I could live very comfortably here.

7.53

When you want to report a statement about obligation, it is possible to use 'must', but the expression 'had to' (see paragraph 4.248) is more common.

• He said he really had to go back inside.
• Sita told him that he must be especially kind to the little girl.

You use 'have to', 'has to', or 'must' if the reported situation still exists or is in the future.

When you want to report a statement prohibiting something, you normally use 'mustn't'.

• He said they mustn't get us into trouble.

When you want to report a strong recommendation, you can use 'ought to'. You can also use 'should'.

• He knew he ought to be helping Harold.
• I felt I should consult my family.

7.54

When you want to report a habitual past action or a past situation, you can use the semi-modal 'used to'.

• I wish I knew what his favourite dishes used to be.

7.55

The use of modals in reported clauses can be compared with the ordinary use of modals (see paragraphs 4.95 to 4.262). Many of the functions are similar, but some are rarely or never found in reported clauses.