Great English Monarchs and Their times

by Clemen D. B. Gina

PART ONE

Henry VIII-A Tudor King

CHAPTER ONE

The Young King

Henry VIII became king in 1509, just before his eighteenth birthday. Young Henry was not prepared to be king. He became king only because his elder brother, Arthur, died at the age of fifteen. Soon after the coronation Henry married his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, who was his brother Arthur's widow.

Catherine was the only child of King Ferdinand of Spain. Spain was then a very powerful country. This marriage created a strong alliance between the two countries.

Catherine was beautiful and intelligent, and Henry loved her. For almost twenty years they were the perfect royal couple and were happy together.

The new King looked like a hero. Henry was handsome and robust. He was six foot tall. At that time most men were about five foot four inches tall. He had bright blue eyes and red hair. He also had a strong personality. The people of England liked King Henry.

Young Henry was strong and full of energy. He loved playing tennis, riding horses and hunting. He hunted in the forests with hawks. He was a very skilled swordsman and loved mock fights called jousts.

Henry was also a great scholar. He spoke English, French, Latin and Spanish. He studied ancient Greek, religious writings, mathematics and astronomy. He was an avid reader and encouraged others to read too. He loved music and played several instruments very well: the harp, the organ, the lute and the virginals. He was a good singer and dancer, and also composed beautiful songs. We can still listen to some of his compositions.

During this time the Renaissance developed in England. King Henry was a patron of the arts. Writers, poets, painters and musicians were all welcome at his court. The famous Dutch scholar, Erasmus, was Henry's friend.

The young King was very busy with banquets, dancing, hunting and sports. He decorated his castles and palaces with beautiful furniture and paintings. He wore expensive clothes and jewellery, and was generous with his friends.

Henry did not have much time to govern his country. One of his advisers began to govern England. His name was Thomas Wolsey, a clever man of humble origins. He was a cardinal of the Church.

Henry desperately wanted an heir to the Tudor throne. Early in 1511 Catherine gave birth to a son. There were great celebrations, but the little Prince died after two months. King Henry was very disappointed.

CHAPTER TWO

War, Peace and Taxes

King Henry was a very ambitious man. He wanted the glory of a war and in 1512 he invaded France unsuccessfully.

The following year Henry was more successful. The English won a battle that Henry called 'The Battle of the Spurs'.

While Henry was in France, the Scottish King, James IV, invaded northern England. After a violent battle the English won at Flodden Field. King James IV and thousands of Scots were killed.

Henry was pleased with the success in France and he wanted to return the following year. However, the war cost a lot of money and only a little land was conquered.

Henry's adviser, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, did not want another war. He convinced Henry to make peace with France.

He was a very ambitious and greedy man. In 1515 he became Lord Chancellor of England. He was the most powerful man in the country after the King! Wolsey became very rich. He used his money to build the 1,000-room palace of Hampton Court. He later gave it to Henry to win his favour.

During this period there were many religious problems. The Catholic Church was very powerful and very rich. Many people in England did not like the Church or the priests. They were tired of paying high taxes to the Church.

In October 1517 a German monk called Martin Luther protested against the Catholic Church. He wanted to make radical changes. This was the beginning of the Reformation and the Protestant Church.

Henry did not like Martin Luther's ideas and wrote the 'Defence of the Seven Sacraments.' He dedicated it to Pope Leo X. The Pope was pleased and gave Henry the title of 'Defender of the Faith.'

For eight years Cardinal Wolsey kept peace with France. In 1520 he organised a meeting in Piccardy in France, between the two Kings. Wolsey wanted the Kings to sign a peace treaty.

Elaborate tents made of gold cloth and a beautiful palace were created for the two Kings and their courts. The entire English court of 5,800 people went to Piccardy. There were jousts and elaborate banquets. An immense amount of money was spent for this occasion. Henry wore a cloak made of gold cloth. The extravagant finery gave the meeting its name 'The Field of the Cloth of Gold.' The two Kings signed a peace treaty but after two years they were at war again!

Henry and his court lived in luxury. His clothes and jewels were always more magnificent. Henry soon spent most of his father's money.

During almost 20 years of marriage Catherine gave birth to four sons, but they all died. Only a girl, Princess Mary, survived. Henry was desperate. He didn't want a daughter. He wanted a son to become king after his death. Catherine was too old to have other children and Henry lost interest in her.

CHAPTER THREE

The Break with Rome

Early in 1526 Henry met a young English lady of the court. Her name was Anne Boleyn. She had long, black hair and dark eyes. She spoke French and wore elegant French clothes. She was very lively, intelligent and interested in politics. Henry fell in love with her immediately. Several men of the court fell in love with her too. Anne had a sixth finger on her left hand. Her enemies called her a witch!

Henry wanted to marry Anne Boleyn and have a son with her. He decided to divorce Catherine, but he needed permission from the Pope in Rome. He asked Cardinal Wolsey to convince the Pope. After a few years the Pope refused the divorce.

Henry was furious with Wolsey and the Church. He accused Cardinal Wolsey of treason and he died soon after. In 1529 Henry chose Sir Thomas More, a great scholar and an honest man, as Lord Chancellor of England. Sir Thomas More was Lord Chancellor until 1532 when he was beheaded because he opposed Henry's break with Rome.

In 1533 Henry also chose a new Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Cranmer wanted to change the Church. He believed in the absolute power of the King. Cranmer encouraged the use of the Bible in English. He also helped to establish the Protestant Church in England. He later annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

In January 1533 Henry and Anne Boleyn were secretly married. Catherine of Aragon was banished from court and died alone three years later.

By May 1533 Anne Boleyn was Queen of England. Four months later she gave birth to Princess Elizabeth. Another girl! Henry was desolate. He wanted a son more than anything.

In 1534 Thomas Cromwell, Henry's new Lord Chancellor, helped put into effect the Act of Supremacy. With this Act Henry became the Supreme Head of the Church of England.

Henry was soon tired of Anne because she did not give him a son. He then met another lady called Jane Seymour and fell in love with her.

Anne, Henry's second wife, was accused of adultery and treason. She was imprisoned in the Tower of London and was beheaded in May 1536.

Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution Henry married Jane Seymour. She was a quiet, docile lady who brought happiness to the royal family.

In October 1537 Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward. King Henry was overjoyed and the whole country celebrated. Unfortunately, after twelve days the Queen died from an infection.

Henry mourned her for a long time. Jane, his third wife, was probably his favourite.

Henry now had an heir - Prince Edward was the future King of England. He was first in succession to the throne because he was a male. Edward was intelligent and received an excellent education from the best scholars.

To show his power and importance Henry VIII built magnificent palaces such as St James' Palace and Whitehall Palace. He also built castles and more than fifty houses around England.

CHAPTER FOUR

Henry's Later Years

In Henry's time there were about 850 monasteries in England and Wales. The religious orders obeyed the Pope in Rome and not King Henry.

The monasteries had rich treasures and a quarter of all the land in England! Henry needed money so he and his Lord Chancellor, Cromwell, decided to close the monasteries and take their treasures and land.

Between 1536 and 1539 Cromwell sent his men to inspect them. When they returned they said, 'There is corruption in the monasteries!' This was a good reason to close them.

Cromwell's men took the rich treasures and gave them to the King. They sent away the monks and nuns. Some monasteries were destroyed and others were sold to the nobility. Many were transformed into beautiful houses. The land of the monasteries now belonged to King Henry, who became the richest monarch in Europe.

With the money from the monasteries, Henry built castles and fortifications to protect the south coast of England. Deal Castle in Kent was the biggest fort on the coast. It was built in the form of a rose, the Tudor symbol. Henry also built bigger warships. England now had the most powerful navy in Europe.

(Henry's great warship the Mary Rose sank in 1545. In 1982 the remains of the ship were found, and now the Mary Rose can be seen at the Naval Dockyard in Portsmouth.)

Henry was now forty-eight. He was very fat and his health was not good. He became short-tempered and oppressive. Everyone had to obey him.

The Tudor court still attracted many artists and musicians. Hans Holbein the Younger was a great German artist. He was the King's royal painter. He painted many splendid pictures of the royal family and the Tudor court.

During the 1540s Henry built an extravagant new palace called Nonsuch Palace, in Surrey. A village was destroyed to build it, but it was never completed!

Henry's political position in Europe became weak. Spain and France wanted to destroy him. He needed a strong ally.

Cromwell convinced Henry to marry a German princess called Anne of Cleves. Henry sent Holbein to Germany to paint her portrait. Holbein painted a lovely portrait of Anne, which convinced Henry to marry her.

When she arrived in England Henry was horribly surprised! She was ugly and fat and some people said she looked like a horse. She didn't speak English or like music. He was very angry with Cromwell, who was accused of treason and beheaded in 1540. Henry married Anne for political reasons and divorced her seven months later in July.

Catherine Howard became Henry's fifth wife in the same month (July 1540). She was only nineteen years old and very frivolous. Catherine was unfaithful and Henry became furious. She was accused of treason and beheaded in 1542.

At this point of his life Henry wanted a sincere companion and a nurse. He married his last wife, Catherine Parr, in 1543. She was a mature woman of thirty-one, who was gentle and well educated. (In Henry's time most people did not live past forty- five!)

Catherine brought Henry's three children to court and took interest in their education. She was a kind and loving stepmother. She also encouraged Henry to found Trinity College, a part of Oxford university. Henry's last marriage was successful.

During his later years there were wars with Scotland and France. These wars cost Henry an enormous amount of money. At last he made peace with France in 1546.

Henry's final years were tormented by illness. He was obese. He could not walk and was carried everywhere by servants. He had painful ulcers on his legs, severe headaches and several other illnesses. Catherine Parr nursed him patiently.

In his will he named his three children heirs to the throne.

Henry remained a Catholic all his life. He died on 28 January 1547, and was buried at Windsor next to his third wife, Jane Seymour - the wife he loved the most.

PART TWO

Elizabeth I-The Virgin Queen

CHAPTER ONE

Young Elizabeth

Elizabeth was born on 7 September 1533. Her childhood was not happy. She was two years old when her mother, Anne Boleyn, was beheaded. She spent most of her early life at Hatfield House, away from her father, King Henry VIII.

However, Henry wanted his daughter to have the best education. Roger Ascham, a great scholar and humanist, was Elizabeth's private teacher. She was very intelligent, witty and enjoyed learning. She could read, write and speak Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, Italian and Welsh fluently.

Elizabeth loved riding horses, hunting and dancing. Like her father, she had a talent for music and played the lute and the virginals. Unlike her father, she was very thrifty and did not like spending money.

Elizabeth wasn't beautiful but she was elegant. She was thin, of medium height and very vain. She had red hair, expressive eyes and lovely hands.

When Henry VIII died in 1547, Edward VI became King at the age of nine. But his reign was short. He died of tuberculosis when he was only fifteen.

In 1553 his half-sister Mary (Catherine of Aragon's daughter) became Queen. Her mother was a Catholic and she wanted England to be a Catholic country again. Protestants were persecuted and almost 300 were killed. For this reason she was also known as 'Bloody Mary'.

Young Elizabeth was in danger because she was a Protestant and was very popular with the people. Queen Mary thought Elizabeth plotted against her and imprisoned her in the Tower of London in 1554. Elizabeth never forgot this terrible experience. After two months Mary freed her.

On the night of 17 November 1558 Queen Mary died. The bells of London rang and everyone celebrated: young Elizabeth was the new Queen!

Elizabeth became Queen at the age of 25. Like others of her time Elizabeth believed in astrology. Her astrologer was John Dee, a famous astronomer. He chose the best day for her coronation ceremony: 15 January 1559.

Elizabeth was loved by the people but she was still in danger. The Kings of France and Spain wanted to invade England and bring back the Catholic faith.

The young Queen was alert, clever and prudent. She carefully chose advisers who were honest, loyal and experienced.

William Cecil was Elizabeth's Secretary of State and her most important minister. He was her dear friend and she trusted him completely. Cecil served her for 40 years! Elizabeth was very wise to choose Matthew Parker as Archbishop of Canterbury. He established a moderate Church of England and created a compromise between Catholics and extreme Protestants.

She also chose Lord Robert Dudley to be part of her court. He was her childhood friend and sweetheart, and remained one of her favourites for many years.

Elizabeth was a strong ruler. England was now a Protestant country. The Act of Supremacy made her Head of the Church of England. All priests had to use the Book of Common Prayer.

The Queen liked meeting her people and was always kind to the old and the sick. She and her court frequently went on tours, or 'progresses', around the country to visit noble subjects. It was an honour to be part of a royal tour. However, the cost of entertaining the Queen and her court was astronomical and several nobles went bankrupt!

CHAPTER TWO

Plots and Problems

Mary Stuart was Elizabeth's cousin and her most dangerous rival. She was a Catholic and many Catholics wanted Mary to be the Queen of England. Mary was born in Scotland. She was the daughter of James V, King of Scotland and Mary Guise, a French noblewoman. Mary became Queen when she was only one week old. Since there were political problems in Scotland, Mary went to France at the age of five. She had a happy childhood in the luxurious French court. She married the French Dauphin Francis and became Queen of France for a short time. In 1560 her husband, the young King of France, died and she returned to Scotland.

Scotland was a Protestant country but the Scots accepted her as their Queen. Mary was very beautiful, charming and fun - loving. This worried Queen Elizabeth.

At this time something terrible happened: Elizabeth caught smallpox, a disease that killed many people in those days. She was dangerously ill for many days. Elizabeth's German doctor saved her life. Smallpox scars remained on Elizabeth's face all her life. She always wore white powder and cosmetics to hide the scars.

Parliament wanted Elizabeth to marry as soon as possible. It was important to have an heir to the Tudor throne.

Several foreign monarchs wanted to marry Elizabeth: The Archduke of Austria, Ivan 'the Terrible' Tsar of Russia, the King of France and the King of Spain.

Many noblemen of her court wanted to marry her too. Sir Christopher Hatton loved her so much that he never married. However, Elizabeth spent most of her time with Robert Dudley, her favourite companion.

Elizabeth was not interested in marriage. She feared that a foreign king was dangerous for England. And she did not want to divide her power with anyone.

In 1566, Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester, said, 'I really believe the Queen will never marry.' He was right. However, Parliament insisted. One day Elizabeth became angry and said, 'I am already bound unto a husband, which is the kingdom of England!'

Elizabeth was afraid of a bad marriage. She had the example of her mother and of her cousin, Mary Stuart. After returning to Scotland, Mary married her cousin Lord Darnley in 1565. Soon after the marriage she hated him. Early in 1567 Darnley was killed. Many people suspected Mary and her lover, the Earl of Bothwell. When she married the Earl of Bothwell, the Scots were furious and she escaped to England.

Mary was now a real danger for the Queen - she was on English soil. Catholic nobles began plotting against Elizabeth in favour of Mary. Elizabeth decided to imprison Mary in a remote castle. She remained there for 19 years. Other plots against Elizabeth were discovered, but she didn't want to execute her cousin. In 1586 Mary was finally accused of treason and in 1587 she was beheaded.

CHAPTER THREE

Exploration and Discovery

In 1492 Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator who sailed from Spain, discovered the New World. Now there were new countries to colonise. During the 1500s Spain and Portugal controlled sea travel on the Atlantic Ocean. England and other countries wanted to discover new trade routes to reach the Pacific Ocean. This was Elizabeth's biggest preoccupation and she sponsored many voyages.

Spain was the richest and most powerful country in Europe. Its empire extended to the West Indies, Central and South America. Spain and Portugal shared their treasures with the Pope in Rome.

The Spanish explorers took gold, silver, jewels and other riches from the natives and transported them to Spain on their galleons. Each galleon carried immense treasure.

Many Elizabethan captains and sailors were pirates, but they were called 'privateers.' They had permission from the Queen to attack ships and take their treasure, which they divided with her! This was a common practice at that time.

Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins and Thomas Cavendish were three famous privateers. Elizabeth affectionately called Drake 'my pirate.' Hawkins became the first Englishman to trade in African slaves.

Elizabeth asked Francis Drake, an expert navigator, to sail across the South Atlantic, attack Spanish galleons and take their treasure. She also wanted him to find new trade routes.

Drake left Plymouth in 1577 on his ship The Golden Hind and sailed South. He attacked several Spanish galleons on the South American coast. Then he sailed up the Pacific Coast and landed in northern California in 1579. He stayed there a month and claimed California for Queen Elizabeth - today this place is called Drake's Bay, California, near San Francisco. In 1936 an old metal plate was found near Drake's Bay with these words on it:

BE IT KNOWN TO ALL MEN...

JUNE 17, 1579, BY THE GRACE OF GOD AND IN THE NAME OF HER MAJESTY QUEEN ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND... FOREVER I TAKE POSSESSION OF THIS KINGDOM...

TO BE KNOWN UNTO ALL MEN AS NOVA ALBION.

FRANCIS DRAKE

(No one knows if this metal plate was Drake's or not.)

Drake then sailed across the Pacific Ocean and reached the East Indies. From there he sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and returned to England in 1580 after three long years.

Drake became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. His voyage is memorable because he navigated in very difficult and dangerous conditions. He had no real maps.

Queen Elizabeth was extremely pleased with his results and knighted him. She also gave him a special sword to use on England's enemies.

Drake did not only bring back immense treasures, he also brought back new foods and spices: pineapples, tomatoes, bananas, coconuts, peppers and chillies. Spices were very important because they preserved food and improved its taste.

English colonisation in North America began in 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh, a courageous soldier and explorer, was one of Elizabeth's favourites. He sailed to North America and set up the Virginia colony in honour of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen.

Three years later 117 men, women and children arrived on Roanoke Island, in the Virginia colony. Living conditions were very difficult and many Indians were unfriendly. By 1590 the colony was abandoned. No one knew what happened to the colonists.

Sir Walter Raleigh brought back potatoes and tobacco from the Virginia colony. He introduced pipe smoking to the Elizabethan court and it soon became popular. This was the beginning of the tobacco trade and industry.

CHAPTER FOUR

The Spanish Armada

England and Spain were enemies for many years. The King of Spain, Philip II, was angry with Elizabeth for several reasons: the religious conflict was a growing problem and Philip wanted to bring back the Catholic faith to England.

For many years English pirates and privateers attacked Spanish galleons and took their rich treasure. This exasperated Philip.

In 1585 Elizabeth sent an army to help Dutch Protestants fight the Spanish. When Mary Stuart was beheaded, Philip was furious. He decided to invade England and take the throne from Elizabeth. The Pope strongly supported his plan.

The Spanish Armada had about 130 big ships and about 28,000 men. It was commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia. Elizabeth knew about Philip's plan. She ordered her best captains, Sir Francis Drake, John Hawkins and Martin Frobisher to prepare for the attack.

England had a powerful navy of about 160 smaller ships and about 14,000 men. It was commanded by Lord Howard of Effingham, one of Elizabeth's cousins.

In 1587 Drake attacked 30 Spanish galleons by surprise in Cadiz, Spain. 'I have singed the King of Spain's beard,' he said proudly. His brilliant action pleased Elizabeth and hurt the Spanish.

Elizabeth did not like war, but she was determined to defend England. Before the Spanish attack she visited her army and said, 'I have the body of a weak... woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king!' She was a courageous woman.

In July 1588 the impressive Armada sailed up the English Channel. The weather was against the Spanish. The English attacked at Plymouth, using new tactics to surprise the enemy. After several sea battles the Armada reached Calais.

Lord Howard sent eight fireships to Calais. When the Spanish saw them they were terrified and immediately left the port. There were other sea battles and both countries fought courageously. In the end the Armada was badly defeated and returned to Spain with only 67 ships. This was a glorious victory for England, but it was a disaster for Spain. After this defeat, Spain slowly lost its sea power.

By 1590 Elizabeth was almost 60 years old. She was still healthy and energetic, but her aspect changed. She wore a red wig and her face was covered with heavy white make-up. Her teeth were in very bad condition. However, she was still vain. Every morning she spent more than two hours getting ready. She had about 3,000 magnificent dresses and innumerable splendid jewels. She was always very careful with her personal hygiene and took a bath once a month. She hated bad odours and loud noise.

Elizabeth's court was a centre for playwrights, artists and musicians. Edmund Spenser's famous work The Faerie Queen was dedicated to Elizabeth.

English drama flourished during this period. William Shakespeare was born on 23 April 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon. His father was a glove-maker. He attended school at Stratford until he was fifteen.

When he was eighteen he married Anne Hathaway and they had three children.

He went to London in about 1587, before the sea battle of the Spanish Armada. With England's brilliant victory over the Armada, the great English literary Renaissance began and Shakespeare became the most famous English writer of all time.

In London he worked as an actor and began to write plays and poetry. By 1592 William Shakespeare was famous in London. His plays were very successful and he became a rich man. He wrote 38 tragedies, comedies and historical plays. Some of his best known plays are Hamlet, Macbeth, The Merchant of Venice, A Midsummer Night's Dream and Romeo and Juliet. He and his group often performed for Queen Elizabeth and her court.

People of all social classes started going to the theatre. In London open air theatres became very popular. Shakespeare's spectators were a noisy crowd. They talked, laughed, shouted, ate and drank during the performances. In open air theatres plays began in the afternoon when there was plenty of light. When it rained many of the spectators got wet. Women's roles were played by young men, because women did not act in the theatre. Shakespeare's plays were performed at the Globe, the Swan and the Rose Theatres.

Shakespeare died on his birthday in 1616 and was buried in Stratford-upon-Avon.

Other important Elizabethan playwrights were Ben Jonson and Christopher Marlowe.

Elizabeth's last favourite was the handsome Earl of Essex. She loved him dearly, although he was 34 years younger than her. She made him a military leader but he betrayed her. He was accused of treason and beheaded in 1601.

In 1603 Elizabeth was 70 years old. She ate very little and was weak. She died on March 24, 1603, and was the last Tudor monarch. She named James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary Stuart, heir to the throne. Her people mourned her for a long time.

Her reign lasted 44 years. Under Elizabeth trade grew, Spain was defeated and England became a European power.

PART THREE

Victoria-Mother of the Empire

CHAPTER ONE

The Lonely Princes

On 24 May 1819 a little princess was born at Kensington Palace in London. Her name was Alexandrina Victoria. She was the daughter of the Duke of Kent, King William's brother, and a German Princess, Victoria of Saxe-Coburg.

Victoria's father died when she was a baby. Her childhood was lonely and dull. She had no friends to play with. Her favourite toys were dolls. She rarely went out because her mother was very protective. She grew up with her mother and her strict German governess, Baroness Lehzen. Victoria adored Baroness Lehzen.

Victoria later wrote that she 'had no brothers or sisters to live with - never had a father, and did not know what a happy home life was.'

The young Princess loved animals and had three pets: a dog called Dash, a canary and a parakeet. She had private lessons in many subjects from half past nine in the morning to six in the evening. She loved singing and dancing.

At the age of twelve Victoria said, 'I see I am nearer the throne than I supposed. On that day she made a promise, 'I will be good.'

When Victoria was 13 her mother decided that she must see Britain and that the British people must see her. The young Princess travelled to Wales, the Midlands, Yorkshire and the south coast. She was welcomed with enthusiasm everywhere.

These journeys were not a holiday but a part of her education.

Victoria wrote about her journey in her diary. She did not know that thousands of poor children worked in factories and mills in terrible conditions. They never went to school and often died at a young age. She also learned that working people lived in small, dark houses and were often hungry.

On Victoria's seventeenth birthday her German cousin, Prince Albert, came to visit her. Victoria liked him immediately. Her mother thought Prince Albert was the ideal husband and Victoria agreed!

At five in the morning on 20 June 1837 Victoria received the news: King William IV died that night and she was now the Queen! She was only eighteen and knew very little about government or politics. At half past eleven that morning she went to meet her advisers, the Privy Councillors. She spoke and behaved calmly, and everyone admired her.

The young Queen now lived at Buckingham Palace, away from the strict control of her mother. Victoria enjoyed going to the opera and the ballet, and began horse riding. Since she was short she felt taller on a horse!

Lord Melbourne, the Prime Minister, was the most important person in Victoria's early years as Queen. He was a kind and loyal friend. He gave her advice and helped her understand politics and government.

In 1839 Victoria's cousin, Albert, visited her again. This is what she wrote in her diary: 'Albert really is quite charming, and so excessively handsome. My heart is quite going.' Victoria loved Albert and proposed to him! (Albert could not propose because he was of lower rank.)

They were married in 1840. Victoria and Albert loved each other very much. She called him 'an angel.' However, Albert was a foreigner and not everyone liked him. Parliament did not give Albert a title and many Londoners said rude things about him.

Albert was intelligent, well-educated and responsible. He was very interested in science, music and the arts. Victoria learned from Albert to be a dedicated monarch. The Queen asked for his help on government affairs and they always worked together.

CHAPTER TWO

The Growth of Commerce and Industry

In November 1840 the Queen had her first child, Victoria. She was very clever and was the Queen's favourite child. In 1841 Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, was born.

Between 1840 and 1857 Victoria and Albert had nine children - four sons and five daughters. Victoria was a strict mother. The children's food and clothing were always very simple. Victoria and Albert were devoted parents and spent a lot of time with their children. Family values and morality were very important to the royal couple. They became an example for their people. Most Victorians had large families. In the late 1800s, the average family had five or six children.

Albert introduced the first Christmas tree to the royal family, since it was a German custom. Soon it was popular all over Britain. Victoria was very fond of Christmas and its traditions.

The first public railway opened in 1825 and attracted a lot of attention. It was built by George Stephenson, an engineer. In 1830 the Liverpool to Manchester Railway opened and soon transported 1,200 passengers every day.

With the railway, people and goods travelled cheaply and quickly. Railways spread rapidly all over England, Scotland and Wales. People started going to the seaside and seaside towns developed. By 1848 there were no more stage coaches - almost everyone travelled by train.

In 1842 Victoria and Albert took their first train ride. The Queen liked the speed, comfort and privacy of the train. Soon the royal family travelled by Royal Train, a specially designed carriage. In 1840 the first national postal system was created and the 'Penny Black' became the first adhesive postage stamp. Victoria's profile appeared on it. It cost only one penny to send a letter anywhere in Great Britain. Today the red Victorian letter boxes are still used!

Victoria had three royal houses but she didn't like any of them. She wanted a private, remote family home. She and Albert bought a large estate called Osborne on the Isle of Wight. Victoria loved Osborne and was very happy there.

In 1847 the royal couple bought a house in Scotland: Balmoral Castle. It was surrounded by green hills and forests. Victoria liked the fresh, clean air and Albert liked hunting and fishing.

Poverty was a big problem in 19th-century Britain. Working people had a very difficult life. Adults and children worked long hours in factories in dangerous conditions. They were usually hungry and often ill. Squalid houses, unclean water and dirty streets caused many diseases. The air was full of smoke and fog. People did not live long in these conditions.

People without work lived on the streets. They were beggars or thieves. Others lived in workhouses. Some Victorians tried to help the poor. Dr Barnardo opened a home for orphans in London. Charles Dickens wrote about these social problems in his novels, for example in Oliver Twist and David Copperfield.

Social reforms were seriously needed. In 1847 the Ten Hour Act limited the working day of women and children to ten hours a day!

In 1848 Parliament passed laws to make towns and cities cleaner. But progress was very slow.

The middle and upper classes had clean, comfortable houses, far from the industrial centres in green areas called suburbs. Their children received a good education.

Under Victoria's reign Britain became the richest commercial nation. It produced machines, textiles, ships and other goods, and sold them to other countries.

Albert wanted to show Britain's products, inventions and machines to the world. He decided to open an international exhibition. For two years he worked intensely on this complex project. The British began to appreciate Albert's qualities.

On 1 May 1851 Queen Victoria opened the Great Exhibition in the Crystal Palace in London. She called it 'the most beautiful spectacle ever seen.' The Crystal Palace was truly a spectacle. It was made of iron and glass, and was as big as four football fields! There were over 7,000 exhibitors from Britain and 6,000 from other countries. It was an enormous success with over 6 million visitors in 140 days!

CHAPTER THREE

Wars and Loss

During the 1850s there were wars and revolts in Europe and Asia. British soldiers fought in several of them. The most important was the Crimean War on the Black Sea. Russia wanted to expand its empire and perhaps block the Mediterranean and overland routes to India. So Britain and France decided to help Turkey fight Russia.

The Crimean War was the first war that was photographed. For the first time newspapers showed photographs of a war - a painful, tragic spectacle.

Victoria was very unhappy because the soldiers suffered. She sent them mittens and scarves, and visited the wounded soldiers in British hospitals. She wrote letters to the soldiers' widows. Albert wrote hundreds of letters to Members of Parliament to ask them to send more help to the soldiers.

Victoria helped Florence Nightingale who went to Crimea with 38 nurses. She courageously set up a hospital for wounded soldiers and saved many lives. After the war Florence Nightingale opened the first school for nurses in London. This was the beginning of modern nursing and improved hygienic conditions in hospitals.

When the Crimean War ended in 1856 Victoria presented a special medal for courage to many soldiers. This medal was called the Victoria Cross and it was made of captured Russian cannon!

At this time India was controlled by the British East India Company, a trading company set up in India. In 1857 there was a rebellion against the British who lived in India. It was called the Indian Mutiny. Thousands of people were killed. After this rebellion India became part of the British Empire and was controlled by the British government.

Victoria was very healthy and was rarely ill. She did not like hot rooms and always kept windows open, even in winter!

Albert was usually cold and was not as healthy as Victoria. He worked too much and rarely rested. He was also worried about his son, the Prince of Wales. The Prince's adventures with women and gambling shocked Albert, who was very upright.

Albert became very tired and weak. In November 1861 he caught typhoid fever, but he continued working until he died on 14 December. Victoria was devastated - it was the greatest agony of her life. She was lost without Albert. She was convinced that her son, the Prince of Wales, was responsible for Albert's death. She did not permit the Prince of Wales to help her with government work.

Victoria visited Albert's impressive tomb at Frogmore near Windsor regularly. She wanted everyone to remember him. The Albert Memorial and the Royal Albert Hall near the Kensington Gardens in London were built to honour her beloved husband.

In her sadness and misery Victoria became a recluse. For thirteen years she refused to appear in public and go to Privy Council meetings.

However, she continued studying government papers privately and never lost contact with her kingdom. She spent a lot of time at Balmoral Castle, far from London. A Scottish servant called John Brown became her loyal friend.

During this period Victoria and the monarchy became very unpopular, and some politicians wanted to abolish it and create a republic!

CHAPTER FOUR

The End of an Era

In 1866 Victoria opened Parliament for the first time after Albert's death. She was dressed in black, the colour of mourning, which she wore for the rest of her life.

Transportation became a big problem in London because roads were always crowded. In 1863 the first underground railway in the world opened in London. Today it is called the 'tube'.

This was a period of social reforms. In 1870 the Education Act was passed. It introduced the first state schools for all children between the ages of five and thirteen.

Factory reforms, new laws for the poor and new hospitals improved people's lives. In 1875 many slums were destroyed and better homes were built. However, poverty was still a big problem.

In 1878 the American inventor Alexander Bell showed the Queen his invention, the telephone. Victoria was astonished! She was even more astonished to learn about the invention of a new means of transport: the automobile. This was a period of revolutionary change.

At this time Victoria's favourite Prime Minister was Benjamin Disraeli, a witty, intelligent man. He got along well with the Queen and encouraged her to return to public life.

Disraeli wanted to expand the British Empire. His political rival, William Gladstone, wanted to limit it. Victoria did not like Gladstone. He complained about the cost of the Albert Memorial. Victoria liked Disraeli's idea of a bigger and stronger British Empire. In 1869 the Suez Canal, built by the French, opened and created an important trade route to India and the East. Great Britain bought shares in the canal to secure Britain's power in the East.

India was an important colony with its production of tea, silk and cotton.

Victoria was fascinated by India and was delighted to become Empress of India in 1876. The British Empire expanded rapidly with the addition of Borneo, Burma and New Guinea.

David Livingstone was a British missionary and a great explorer. In the 1850s he travelled extensively in Africa and made the first maps of Central Africa. He discovered six lakes, rivers, mountains and the biggest waterfall in the world: called Victoria Falls in honour of the Queen. Henry Morton Stanley explored Lake Tanganyika and the Congo River.

In the 1880s Britain took control of large parts of Africa: Egypt, Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda. In 1883 there was a war in Sudan and rebels destroyed the British command in Khartoum. From its African colonies Britain got cocoa, coffee and diamonds.

On 20 June 1887 Victoria celebrated her 50 years as Queen. The following day she rode through London in an open carriage for the spectacular Golden Jubilee celebrations. The streets were full of cheering people.

A procession of royal guests from all over the world rode in front of Victoria. There were Kings and Queens from Europe, the Crown Prince of Prussia and Princes from India, Japan and Siam. Victoria was very fond of music and liked singing arias from the comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan. The Mikado, The Pirates of Penzance and HMS Pinafore are their most famous operas. However, it was the famous British composer Edward Elgar who wrote music for the great celebration.

But Victoria felt sad and lonely. 'I sat alone,' she wrote, 'Oh, without my beloved husband!' All of her children married into royal families in different parts of Europe.

When Victoria celebrated her Diamond Jubilee in 1897 there was another gigantic procession, with 50,000 troops from all over the British Empire. On that day Victoria pressed a button to send a telegraph message around the empire: 'From my heart I thank my beloved people. May God bless them!'

In 1899 the British Empire was the biggest empire in the world.

It covered one-fifth of the earth's land area with 370 million people!

Victoria was now an old woman and suffered from rheumatism. She could not walk well but was still active. She worked from half past seven in the morning until late at night, studying government papers. She loved her people and her empire.

At the beginning of 1901 the Queen was very weak. On 22 January 1901 Victoria died at the age of 82 at Osborne House. Thousands of people wept during her funeral procession. She was considered the Mother of the British Empire. She was buried beside her beloved Albert at Frogmore near Windsor.