PART TWO
CRITICAL READING

The word critical can mean different things. A critical person, for example, has a tendency to find fault with people and things and to judge them harshly. A critical situation suggests danger and uncertainty; a critical decision is an important decision. Critical, as it is used in "critical reading", refers to a person's ability to (1) identify and understand the facts in a reading situation and (2) evaluate or analyze these facts accurately.

In Part Two, we will see how a person's ability to draw an accurate conclusion depends on his ability to read critically.

The techniques required for critical reading are: (1) identifying ideas, and (2) evaluating these ideas. When drawing a conclusion, evaluation is most important. Evaluation of the writer's ideas makes it possible for you to decide if you agree or disagree with him and enables you to draw intelligent conclusions.

Evaluating Main Ideas

Careful evaluation enables you to decide if the main idea in a paragraph is developed satisfactorily.

Read the following example. You will notice that the main idea is stated in the first sentence. Evaluate the ideas in the example and decide if the main idea has been developed satisfactorily.

Many of the smaller species of birds fly south for the winter. Since the sparrow is small, it must fly south for the winter.

If you are not satisfied with the way the main idea is developed, you are right. Obviously, the sparrow is a small bird, but that does not necessarily mean that it must winter in the south.

By evaluating the ideas critically, we see that the thinking in the example is faulty, and that the conclusion, "... it must fly south for the winter", is not acceptable.

Here is the same example, but with one exception. The word "must" was changed to read "might." Notice what happens.

Many of the smaller species of birds fly south for the winter. Since the sparrow is small, it might fly south for the winter.

The conclusion, "... it might fly south for the winter", is acceptable and is the only conclusion supported by the facts.

Evaluating Supporting Details

Careful evaluation enables you to decide if the supporting details in a paragraph are inappropriate, unnecessary or inaccurate.

Read the following example. You will notice that the main idea is stated in the first sentence. Evaluate the details in this example and decide if they are inappropriate, unnecessary or inaccurate.

Whenever Tom travels on business, he always calls his wife at the end of the day. The humidity during the Miami convention was unbearable, and when Tom did not call home for two days, his wife started to worry.

Before deciding anything about this example, read this:

Whenever Tom travels on business, he always calls his wife at the end of the day. When Tom did not call home for two days, his wife started to worry.

If by now you have decided that the detail, "The humidity during the Miami convention was unbearable", is inappropriate and unnecessary, you are thinking critically. This detail does not follow from the main idea, nor is it related to the facts that Tom has not called his wife for two days and that she is worried.

The presence of unnecessary ideas in any kind of writing is a sure sign of an untidy mind. Inappropriate ideas irritate the critical reader and confuse the less attentive reader.

Do not be controlled by the author. Try to understand what you read. React thoughtfully to the ideas presented. Decide if the conclusions reached by the author are acceptable.

Read this example critically:

Rich countries have a responsibility to help poor countries. Many rich countries have shared their wealth equally with poor countries and have succeeded in eliminating poverty wherever they found it. It seems reasonable that more rich countries should do the same.

It is easy to agree with the idea that rich countries should help poor countries; however, the critical reader cannot agree with the conclusion, "...more rich countries should do the same." This conclusion is drawn from a faulty or inaccurate statement. It is not true that, "Many rich countries have shared their wealth equally with poor countries and have succeeded in eliminating poverty wherever they found it." The critical reader knows this and realizes that the statement is inaccurate. He has not allowed himself to be controlled by the author. The author may be misinformed or suffering from a serious case of wishful thinking.

Evaluating Intent

Careful evaluation enables you to decide if the author is trying to trick his readers or his audience into accepting his point of view without critical evaluation.

Read the following example. Notice that the speaker starts by making a general statement about ideas that seem reasonable and gradually builds up to his conclusion.

Ladies and Gentlemen,

It is not for me to question or to criticize the intelligence and the honesty of our national leaders. They are all, I am sure, honorable men and women. However, you and I both realize that they are human and, like all human beings, are not perfect. I am not suggesting that you should rise up in arms against them. Of course not. I am simply asking you to consider my program for an open and free society.

If your first reaction to the example was suspicion, you are reading critically. The speaker started by trying to convince his audience that he is a fair and sensible person. He then made statements that any reasonable person has to agree with. An important part of his strategy was to protest strongly against the use of violence. Actually, in his own quiet way, the speaker may be trying to organize rebellion by overthrowing the present government and replacing it with his own ideas of what a free and open society should be.

The speaker is trying to trick his audience into accepting his conclusion. His conclusion seems innocent enough: "I am simply asking you to consider my program for an open and free society." But to the person who has understood and evaluated critically all the ideas that were expressed, his conclusion has violent and revolutionary overtones. The critical reader knows that the speaker is really saying: "The present government must be overthrown."

Evaluating Prejudice

Careful evaluation enables you to decide if the author uses bias and prejudice to influence the thinking of his readers.

Read the following example. The first sentence makes a general statement. It sets the stage for the other sentences and leads into the conclusion. Evaluate the facts critically; decide if they support the main idea and if the conclusion is the only one that can be drawn from the stated facts.

Today, more and more young people from minority groups are finding jobs in business. Officials are eager to give them a good economic start in the competitive business world. Industry leaders, however, are faced with a baffling problem. These employees are unfriendly, lack interest, and have no sense of responsibility. It seems that young people from minority groups should not consider careers in the business world.

Careful evaluation of the facts and the conclusion reveals bias, prejudice, omissions and a bold-faced attempt to sell the reader distorted ideas.

The first sentence in the example makes a positive and encouraging statement. The second sentence is meant to express the sincerity and the willingness of the business community. The third sentence sounds a note of alarm. The fourth sentence makes unfair and unsupported statements, and the conclusion, the fifth sentence, betrays the real purpose of the author.

Not all examples of bias and prejudice are as obvious as this one. Some can be very subtle. Read the following example:

Since medical schools receive more applications than they can accept and since the time and money invested in a young man's medical career is enormous, only the best qualified young men should be accepted into medical school.

If you cannot detect the presence of bias and prejudice, do not be overly concerned. A very convincing case has been made in favor of accepting only the very best applicants into the nation's medical schools. The facts are accurate and the conclusion "...only the best qualified young men should be accepted into medical school" seems perfectly logical.

The prejudice is not apparent, but this example could be very offensive to a woman, especially one interested in a career in medicine. The example is strongly biased in favor of men. It does not even consider the possibility that there may be women among the applicants. This conclusion should be rejected on the basis that it is biased, prejudiced and, above all, sexist.

Evaluating Propaganda

Finally, careful evaluation enables you to recognize the various propaganda techniques used by writers and speakers to influence the thinking of their audiences.

A critical reader must be alert to propaganda devices. A writer will use propaganda techniques when he knows that the conclusions he wants his readers to draw may stand up under intelligent scrutiny.

There are many effective propaganda techniques. For the sake of convenience, we will group them into three categories.

1. The bold repetition of statements is an effective propaganda technique. If something is repeated over and over again, with force, boldness and vigor, it gradually takes on the ring of truth. Newspaper, radio and television commercials constantly bombard the public with slogans. Advertisers understand human nature. They know that it does not really matter if their statements are true or false. What they do know is that if something is repeated often enough, the public eventually believes it.

When you buy a bottle of aspirin, a roll of film, a loaf of bread, a package of chewing gum, or a tube of toothpaste, do you stop to evaluate the pros and cons of your choice and draw a conclusion based on the evidence? If you are like most people, you have been conditioned by the bold repetition technique and have become a willing victim of the advertisers' trap.

2. The bandwagon psychology is an effective propaganda technique. As much as they hate to admit it, people feel safer when they follow the crowd. They feel uncomfortable if others think them odd or different. Speakers and writers understand this human tendency and exploit it. Politicians urge us to vote for them and support the "American way." Advertisers know we will buy their products if one of the "Beautiful People" asks us to. A writer knows that we might agree with his thinking if he can persuade us that most intelligent people think the way he does. An organization will attract interest and support if it can boast that the most prominent people of the community are members.

3. The use of emotionally charged words is an effective propaganda technique. The use of emotionally charged words is the most effective propaganda technique a writer can employ. He can manipulate a reader's emotions and eventually control his thinking by using words which produce certain emotional reactions. A writer who wants to argue against war and military service makes a convincing, even though emotional, appeal when he writes.

America cannot afford to waste its youth. They are America .... By sending them to war we are wasting them ... and America itself.

Words like "America" and "youth", used in this manner, produce a predictable reaction. If a reader were undecided about the war/draft issue, the emotional appeal might win him over.

A critical reader asks himself these questions:

1. What did the writer say?
2. Do the facts support the writer's main idea?
3. Has the writer tried to control my thinking by making biased statements or appealing to my emotions?
4. Have I drawn the only conclusion allowed by the facts and justified by critical evaluation?